During Operation Ranch Hand, the U.S. and South Vietnamese governments spent considerable time and effort making the claim that tactical herbicides were safe for humans and the environment. Add one more primary color to the poisonous palette of Vietnam: Agent Blue. According to Masami Kawamuracofounder of Okinawa Outreach, the citizens' group at the forefront of demands for a full inquest into Agent Orange use on the islandthe Okinawan Prefectural government claimed that if they investigated blindly without identifying locations with high probabilities of being contaminated with [Agent Orange], this could just create rumors harmful to the communities.. Chemicals could be associated with serious health issues such as muscular dysfunction, inflammation, birth defects, nervous system disorders and even the development of various cancers. However, early plans to use chemicals to, for example, starve the Japanese by ruining their rice crops, faltered. In addition to being a highly effective at killing plants, it has turned out to have a number of alarming health effects that have made it into a very controversial subject. The timeframe covered by the recently discovered report suggests that the barrels were a part of Operation Red Hatthe militarys 1971 operation to remove its 12,000-ton store of chemical weapons (including mustard gas, VX, and sarin) from Okinawa in preparation for the islands reversion to Japanese control the following year. Famine, malnourishment and starvation set in. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. The Effect on Soldiers. Since 1945, the small Japanese island of Okinawa has been unwilling host to a massive U.S. military presence and a storehouse for a witches brew of dangerous munitions and chemicals, including nerve gas, mustard gas, and nuclear missiles. Evidence pointed to secret sorties flown by Air America pilots. Exposure to Agent Orange has also been linked to type 2 diabetes, heart disease, hormone disruption, and dysfunction in the muscular and immune systems. On a positive note, the Vietnamese government and both local and international organizations are making strides toward restoring this critical landscape. The destruction of Vietnamese forests, however, has proven irreversible. The past year has been the most arduous of our lives. The estimated dermal and oral exposure exceeded US standards. The basis of their evidence was a purported claim from a former NZ Defence attach in Washington that he wrote reports to the United States Defence Department about the supply of Agent Orange. The barrels, containing over 1.4 million gallons of the toxic defoliant, were brought to Okinawa from Vietnam before being taken to Johnston Island in the Pacific Ocean, where the U.S. military incinerated its stocks of the compound in 1977. Nearly 50 percent of the countrys mangroves, which protect shorelines from typhoons and tsunamis, were destroyed. Ranch Hands unofficial mottoonly you can prevent a forestriffed off of Smokey Bears plea for people to prevent forest fires. And during the course of 9 years, over 6,000 spraying missions took place in South Vietnam, according to U.S. Air Force statistics. To do so would set an unwelcome precedent: Despite official denials, the U.S. and its allies, including Israel, have been accused of using chemical weapons in conflicts in Gaza, Iraq and Syria. We have a strong desire to do the right thing for all of the U.S. veterans who were exposed to herbicides/Dioxin on Okinawa as well as for Okinawa, states the letter, which was organized by former Air Force sergeant Joe Sipala. To those who followed the conflict's aftermath intimately, this was hardly surprising. James R. Clary was a young Air Force officer and scientist who designed the spray tank for the C-123 cargo planes that dispensed Agent Orange and other herbicides during the Vietnam War. Due to this, climatic conditions in lower levels got changed dramatically with decreased moisture levels and increased light intensity, causing massive killing of plants and animals. South Vietnam was the main suffering region. They were nicknamed according to the color on the barrels in which they were shipped. The images were taken during a U.S. military public relations event designed to assure the local media that the safety procedures in place for Operation Red Hat were sound. Here's What You Need To Remember:The consequences of the defoliant have been toxic for Vietnam. Worth noting is the fact that the intensity of spraying herbicides in Vietnam at that time was up to 50 times the normal amount for agricultural use. So had millions of Vietnamese people. Today, Agent Orange has become a contentious legal and political issue, both within Vietnam and internationally. The legacy of the defoliant will outlast its immediate victims, said Kaderlik. For more information, and to find out how to change the configuration of cookies, please read our, Utilizamos cookies para realizar el anlisis de la navegacin de los usuarios y mejorar nuestros servicios. And while research in those areas is limited an extensive 2003 study was canceled in 2005 due to a reported lack of mutual understanding between the U.S. and the Vietnamese governments evidence suggests that the heavily polluted soil and water in these locations have yet to recover. Some 45 million liters of the poisoned spray was Agent Orange, which contains the toxic compound dioxin. The suit was settled out of court in 1984 with the establishment of a $180 million fund to compensate some 250,000 claimants and their families. "After President Nixon ordered the U.S. military to stop spraying Agent Orange in 1970, this is the site where all the Agent Orange barrels remaining in Vietnam were collected. Two heroic women fight to hold the manufacturers accountable. (Credit: Gary Mangkorn/AP/REX/Shutterstock). Looking for a list of ships used by the Merchant Marines during the Vietnam war, specifically the ones that entered the inland waters that dropped off supplies. U.S. soldiers, unaware of the dangers, sometimes showered in the empty 55-gallon drums, used them to store food and repurposed them as barbecue pits. forests") and crop-growing regions of South Vietnam.1 Agent Or-ange was shipped to Vietnam in 55-gallon drums circled by a stripe of orange paint for easy sorting from other herbicides Agents White, Blue, Purple, and so on. Many American victims have had better luck, though, seeing successful multi-million-dollar class action settlements with manufacturers of the chemical, including Dow, in 1984 and 2012. Orange Agent Tees Co. Orange Agent Vietnam War Military Victims Retired Soldier T-Shirt 25 $2432 FREE delivery Tue, Feb 7 on $25 of items shipped by Amazon Or fastest delivery Mon, Feb 6 Amazon Merch on Demand +3 CafePress Agent Orange T Shirt Graphic Shirt 5 $1999 $4.99 delivery Feb 9 - 14 Or fastest delivery Feb 8 - 10 Small Business Agent Orange is a mixture of two active chemicals. This article by Jason von Meding first appeared in 2019 in The Conversation via Creative Commons License. Waiting for compensation and justice, organizations such as catholic religious group and VAVA constantly organizing charity events and gives help and rehabilitation to affected people. Whats more dreadful is that dioxin can permeate into the soil and groundwater of Vietnam, and dig its way into plants and animals, which later can be consumed by people and accumulated in their body tissues without their knowledge. Moreabout usor visit home page, Check out the necessary information for traveling to Vietnam, Airport Arrival Tips at Tan Son Nhat International Airport (Ho Chi Minh), Airport Arrival Tips at Noi Bai International Airport (Hanoi). Their substantial contribution has been greatly appreciated and remembered with profound gratitude by dioxin victims and their families. This was used extensively in Vietnam and in the Gulf and also to clean up the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska. Find more hotels to stay in Vietnam below: Ho Chi Minh Private Tours:Saigon Shore ExcursionsMotorbike City ToursSaigon Food Tours, i Tour Vietnam - Private Tours Ltd. Outside Vietnam +84 986188801Inside Vietnam 0986188801 (English)info@itourvn.com. Toxic hotspots also remain at several former U.S. air force bases. Agent Orange is dangerous because it contains 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, otherwise known as TCDD. This herbicide mix was deployed in urban, agricultural, and forested areas in Vietnam to expose the enemy and destroy crops. The natural habitat of such rare species as tigers, elephants, bears and leopards were distorted, in many cases beyond repair. The mixture was known as 'Agent Orange' because of the orange stripe on the 55-gallon drums in which it was transported to Vietnam. In general, the once affluent rainforest and mangrove ecosystem of Vietnam have been superseded to a large extent by a much poorer one, and eco-balance is markedly less robust since the re-formation of young forest were disrupted by the birth and the growing ubiquity of rats. It was contaminated with dioxin, a potent toxicant that persists for. Dioxin stays in the soil and in the sediment at the . The Korean War Project, an organization that has its office in Dallas, Texas, has been raising the issue of Agent Orange, which the U.S. used in the Vietnam War, for about 10 years. Agent Orange Working Group based in Hanoi, Vietnam and Vietnamese Entrepreneurs Association in France are prime examples for the great NGOs that are working towards resolving dioxin legacy in Vietnam. This dispersion of Agent Orange over a vast area of central and south Vietnam poisoned the soil, river systems, lakes and rice paddies of Vietnam, enabling toxic chemicals to enter the food chain. The Covid-19 pandemic continues to be catastrophic not only to our health - mental and physical - but also to the stability of millions of people. Let a viet name take care of their own. In several heavily affected areas of Vietnam, dioxin levels in blood samples are a dozen times higher than permitted, and occurrences of deformities, birth defects, and cancer have been significantly more frequent than other regions. The most recent report, Update 11 (2018), presents the committee's analysis of peer-reviewed, scientific reports published between September 30, 2014, and December 31, 2017. It is a mixture of two common herbicides (2,4-D and 2,4,5-T ) that were used separately in the United States since the late 1940s. In 2004, a Vietnamese group unsuccessfully attempted to sue some 30 companies, alleging that the use of chemical weapons constituted a war crime. Nowadays, the dioxin has remain in Vietnams ecosystem, in the soil and in the food chain. The U.S. and Vietnam are also undertaking a joint remediation program to deal with dioxin-contaminated soil and water. In the United States alone, a ProPublica analysis suggests, a child born to a veteran exposed to Agent Orange was a third more likely to be born with a birth defect. Among the Vietnamese, exposure to Agent Orange is considered to be the cause of an abnormally high incidence of miscarriages, skin diseases, cancers, birth defects, and congenital malformations (often extreme and grotesque) dating from the 1970s. It was used to push enemy troops out of the jungles, forcing them to fight out in the open. Over the years, there have been both American and Vietnamese plaintiffs in Agent Orange court cases in the United States. Because the effects of the chemical are passed from one generation to the next, Agent Orange is now debilitating its third and fourth generation. Besides the obvious purpose of clearing the jungle cover of Vietnamese troops and disabling food production as mentioned above, the intoxication of land also assisted in the American political aim of uprooting over two million refugees from Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, forcing them to flee to other countries. The army report, published in 2003 but only recently discovered, is titled An Ecological Assessment of Johnston Atoll. Outlining the militarys efforts to clean up the tiny island that the United States used throughout the Cold War to store and dispose of its stockpiles of biochemical weapons, the report states directly, In 1972, the U.S. Air Force brought about 25,000 55-gallon (208 liter) drums of the chemical Herbicide Orange (HO) to Johnston Island that originated from Vietnam and was stored on Okinawa.. Erosion caused by loss of tree cover and loss of seedling forest stock meant that reforestation was difficult (or impossible) in many areas. Not true: Sixty-five percent of the United States rainbow of chemicals contained dioxinsknown carcinogens. Agent Orange was a defoliant sprayed by the U.S. during the Vietnam War to clear dense vegetation and reveal enemy troops. Others included, Agent Orange II (super orange), Agent Blue, Agent White, Agent Purple, and Agent Pink. Da Nang International Airport was a former U.S. base that stored and distributed American-made herbicides during the Vietnam War. The wry sarcasm of the phrase sums up the irony of the mission. Weve covered everything thrown at us this past year and will continue to do so with your support. No matter how hard it is, Vietnam is bound to pull it off. Stay updated with the latest news of the COVID-19 situation in Vietnam and information for traveling to Vietnam. On August 10, 2023 - Agent Orange Awareness Day - we will bring light to the continuing dark toll of the war. Now, for the first time, a recently uncovered U.S. army report reveals that, during the Vietnam War, the United States stockpiled 25,000 barrels of Agent Orange on the Pacific island. In recent years, it has become clear that not only did the government know about the herbicides awful effects, but that they relied on chemical companies for technical guidance instead of their own staff. He concluded that the agent orange was not considered a poison under international law. The case was brought by. Surviving Vietnam veterans in the United States, after many years of organized action, have finally achieved compensation from U.S government. Allegedly, chemical manufacturers had informed the U.S. military that Agent Orange was toxic, but spraying went forward anyway. Separately, the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs awarded compensation to about 1,800 veterans. South Vietnam was the main suffering region. From 1961 to 1971, the U.S. Armys tactical herbicides program focused on tropical forests in central and south Vietnam. Agent Blue, an arsenic-based herbicide, is becoming known . "The U.S. Department of Defense has searched and found no record that the aircraft or ships transporting (Agent) Orange to South Vietnam stopped at Okinawa on their way," Maj. Neal Fisher, deputy director of public affairs for U.S. forces in Japan, recently informed the author. Donald Trump is the Republican Party, 'Emperor with no clothes': Ron DeSantis mocked for bungled answer to how he would handle Ukraine, 'I obviously don't have evidence': House Republican has a wild new conspiracy about COVID-19 origins, 'You give a speech at ONE insurrection': Donald Trump Jr. burned for whining 'woke' bank dumped his app, Watch: Candace Owens wishes she could 'punch Volodymyr Zelenskyy in the face', Marjorie Taylor Greene spokesperson throws profane tantrum when confronted by CNN fact-checker, 'Rule by local warlords?' At the moment, the government provides help to U.S. veterans who were exposed to military herbicides in Vietnam, Thailand, and along the demilitarized zone in Korea. Most concerning was the extremely high levels of dioxin in the soil, especially at the main bases like Bien Hoa, Da Nang, and Phu Cat. The dangerous quantity of residual dioxin in the earth thwarts the normal growth of crops and trees, while continuing to poison the food chain. Forces sprayed over the rural landscape in Vietnam from 1961 to 1971 to defoliate trees and shrubs and kill food crops that were providing cover and food to opposition forces. No such plan is in store in Vietnam. The name comes from the orange-labeled containers the herbicide was shipped in. - According with the Vietnam Red Cross the chemical has affected 3 million of Vietnamese, including at least 150,000 children. During the 10-year campaign, U.S. aircraft targeted 4.5 million acres across 30 different provinces in the area below the 17th parallel and in the Mekong Delta, destroying inland hardwood forests and coastal mangrove swamps as they sprayed. Dioxin can have devastating, lethal effects on human health, and on top of that, it is hereditary. As a result, nobody is officially accountable for the suffering of Vietnamese victims of Agent Orange. The Agent Orange was a chemical developed mainly by Monsanto and Dow Chemical. Humans are harmed by Agent Orange due to the presence of dioxin, a highly toxic chemical - a byproduct, rather an intentional component, during the manufacturing of herbicides. The Participatory Action Research approach allowed Agent Orange Victims (AOVs) and community members in Da Nang to tell their stories about how Agent Orange and dioxin have affected their lives, psychology, families, and communities. NGO activist campaign for Vietnamese dioxin victims in France. TCDD is a byproduct of herbicide production and is toxic even in small amounts. Check out the ideal itinerary in Ho Chi Minh City that offers great insights into Vietnam culture and history. Long-Term Fate of Agent Orange and Dioxin TCDD Contaminated Soils and Sediments in Vietnam Hotspots. These include Agent White, Agent Blue, Agent Pink, and Agent Green, among others. From 1971-1982, Air Force reservists, who flew in 34 dioxin-contaminated aircraft used to spray Agent Orange and returned to the U.S. following discontinuation of the herbicide spraying operations in the Vietnam War, were exposed to greater levels of dioxin than previously acknowledged, according to a study published today in Environmental Research by senior author Jeanne Mager Stellman, PhD, Mailman School of Public Health professor emerita in the Department of Health Policy and Management. The Vietnam War may be over, but the battle continues for many Vietnam veterans. In the end, the military campaign was called Operation Ranch Hand, but it originally went by a more appropriately hellish appellation: Operation Hades. Chapter 5 discusses how Agent Orange harms human reproductive functions, and the psychological transformation and social breakthrough that occurred as fathers took responsibility for the disabilities of their children. In 1961, test runs began. No such plan is in store in Vietnam. It has unleashed in Vietnam a slow-onset disaster whose devastating economic, health and. Learn more at erinblakemore.com. Percutaneous absorption of 2-butoxyethanol vapour in human subjects. Now, for the first time, a recently uncovered U.S. army report reveals that, during the. How has Agent Orange affected Vietnamese people? During the Vietnam War, in an operation known as "Operation Ranch Hand," approximately 20 million gallons of herbicides, including around 10.5 million gallons of dioxin-contaminated Agent Orange, were sprayed by 34 C-123 aircraft. In 1967, around 5,000 American scientists, including 17 Nobel laureates, signed a petition condemning the use of . During the past year and a half, dozens of U.S. veterans have spoken out about the use, storage, and disposal of Agent Orange on Okinawa during the 1960s and 70s. (Though estimates vary, the government of Vietnam says that 4 million were exposed to the chemicals, 3 million of whom now suffer from health consequences.) 2023 A&E Television Networks, LLC. Jason von Meding receives funding from Save the Children and the Australian government for disaster related research in Vietnam. However, it was surely inevitable that Vietnamese civilians had to bear the brunt. used to make that statementincluding the filing of multiple Freedom of Information Act requestshave been hampered by U.S. authorities, and the Pentagon has refused to help former service members who claim they were exposed to toxic defoliants during the operation. FACT CHECK: We strive for accuracy and fairness. Agent Orange was stored on site at Diamond Alkali in 208-liter barrels painted with an orange stripe and then loaded on ocean-going vessels and shipped through the Panama Canal Zone [13] Figure 11 801 Ladera Lane, Frank Coleman is a Vietnam veteran dying from cancer brought on by exposure to the defoliant chemical Agent Orange which he turns to Maude DeVictor, a Veterans Administration benefits counselor who teams up with Coleman to fight a lopsided batted against the bureaucratic system f. Read all Director Lamont Johnson Writers Stephen Doran (story) Its abundantly clear now that this is false. No compensations have been given to vietnamese people. Lambert Campus ), Legacy of Agent Orange in Da Nang, Vietnam. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. All Rights Reserved. Fred Berman, DVM, PhD, director of Toxicology at Oregon Health Sciences University and Richard Clapp, professor emeritus, Boston University School of Public Health had previously consulted with the Senate Veterans Affairs Committee on the unresolved issues of Agent Orange exposures in the aircrew. As the jungle died, so did crops. In a just-published paper in the Open Journal of . All levels of Government Agencies claimed to be ignorant of the cost in human death and misery that would result . Agent Orange, mixture of herbicides that U.S. military forces sprayed in Vietnam from 1962 to 1971 during the Vietnam War for the dual purpose of defoliating forest areas that might conceal Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces and destroying crops that might feed the enemy. The name was given because of the color of the orange-striped barrels in which it was shipped. During the Vietnam War, the U.S. Air Force sprayed more than 80 million litres of Agent Orange and other herbicides contaminated with dioxin, a deadly compound that continues to poison the land, the rivers, the ocean and the people. American veterans have suffered, too. However, there is one weapon the Pentagon has always denied that it kept on Okinawa: Agent Orange. But the Pentagons denials about the presence of these herbicides on Okinawa have prevented hundreds of these veterans from receiving aid. In the first generation, the impacts were mostly visible in high rates of various forms of cancer among both U.S. soldiers and Vietnam residents. Pacifica Graduate Institute is accredited by the WASC Senior College and University Commission (WSCUC), 985 Atlantic Avenue, Suite 100, Alameda, CA 94501, 510.748.9001, and is approved by the State of California Board of Private Postsecondary Education (BPPE) and the U. S. Department of Education. Many former service members stationed on Okinawa claim that they are suffering from similar illnesses due to exposure to the herbicide. In Quang Ngai province (in the southern half of the central coast), for example, 85% of the croplands were demolished in 1970 alone, leading to severe famine across the town; hundreds of thousands of people died of starvation or suffered from severe malnutrition, especially kids. or click here to become a subscriber. I remember the sight and the smell of the spray, recalls Thomas Pilsch, who served as a forward air controller in South Vietnam in 1968 and 1969. Nearly half a century since the end of the Vietnam War, there remains an urgent need for the United States and Vietnam to address the harmful legacy of Agent Orange, a defoliant sprayed by the U.S. military over parts of southern Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia an area about the size of Massachusetts that continues to this day to impact the health of local populations. -The Dioxin is the deadly toxin in Agent Orange. Out of the 28 bases where Ranch Hand stored defoliants and loaded them onto airplanes, the main ones were Bien Hoa Air Base for operations in Mekong Delta (Bien Hoa, a populous city in southern Vietnam) and Da Nang Air Base for central coast and the Ho Chi Minh Trail regions (an important artery for Vietnamese military in the war). This is one of the greatest legacies of the countrys 20-year war, but is yet to be honestly confronted. U.S. soldiers, unaware of the dangers, sometimes showered in the empty 55-gallon drums, used them to store food and repurposed them as barbecue pits. More than 19 million gallons of various "rainbow" herbicide combinations were sprayed, but Agent Orange was . Of this figure, nearly 11.45 million (equivalent to over 208,000 drums) was Agent Orange, discharged mostly between 1965 and 1970. Major destinations included the United States, some European countries, and other camps across the world where the Southeast Asian refugees embarked on the path of an uncertain and desperate life. Starting in 1968, herbicides to be shipped to Vietnam were stored at the Seabees base in Gulfport, MS. During Hurricane Camille in 1969, 1,400 barrels of Agent Orange and Agent Blue were blown into the water; up to 240 barrels were never recovered. This story was co-authored by Hang Thai T.M., a research assistant at the Posts and Telecommunications Institute of Technology, in Hanoi. This is not the first time that Agent Orange has been linked to Red Hat. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. Chapter 1 discusses the researcher's relationship with the topic and outlines the research procedures. Third, refining policies for dioxin victims, promoting relief efforts and ensuring better living conditions for them. This story was co-authored by Hang Thai T.M., a research assistant at the Posts and Telecommunications Institute of Technology, in Hanoi. "Food is a weapon", said Kissinger. It took years for the United States military to acknowledge that the chemicals were, in fact, harmful and even longer for them to begin compensating victims for their effects. Do you consider this an environmental justice success? [click to view], The Dark Shadow of Agent Orange | Retro Report | The New York Times[click to view], Toxic Rain - The Legacy of Agent Orange[click to view], Exposure to Agent Orange, a case of ecocide, Vietnam, Biomass and Land Conflicts (Forests, Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock Management), around 5,000,000 people have being exposed to the agent orange. Today, Agent Orange has become a contentious legal and political issue, both within Vietnam and internationally. 249 Lambert Road, Agent Orange, mixture of herbicides that U.S. military forces sprayed in Vietnam from 1962 to 1971 during the Vietnam War for the dual purpose of defoliating forest areas that might conceal Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces and destroying crops that might feed the enemy. The Burns and Novick documentary could have finally raised this uncomfortable truth, but, alas, the directors missed their chance. U.S. propaganda about Agent Orange was so effective, it fooled American troops into thinking it was safe, too. On leaf and soil surfaces it will last 13 years, depending on conditions. These aircraft were subsequently returned to the U.S. and were used by Air Force reserve units between 1971 and 1982 for transport operations. Today, a primary chemical of the toxic defoliant causes deformed births and deadly cancers. US Agency for International Development (USAID) responded to requests from Vietnam in agreeing to send the US$3 million aid package approved by US Government to assist AO/dioxin programs in Vietnam, part of the sum to be spent on improving the health of residents in dioxin-affected areas in Da Nang and on dealing with dioxin contamination at Da Nang airbase. In November 1961, with the authorization of President Kennedy, the U.S. Air Force officially launched Operation Ranch Hand, the codename for its aggressive defoliation program in the Vietnam War. But Britain argued that the conflict was an emergency, not a warand that the treaty didnt outlaw using chemicals for police actions. Brother Nam assured readers that herbicides were safe. Right now we have two governmentsJapan and the U.S.who were actively working together for many decades to lie to their citizens, he said. {{ post.roar_specific_data.api_data.analytics }}. A veteran of the Vietnam War, he has been working on issues relating to Agent Orange exposure since 1989. From 1961 to 1972 the US military forces sprayed more than 19 million gallons of herbicides over 4.5 million acres of land in South Vietnam. More than 40 years on, the impact on their health has been staggering. The disclosure led to immediate claims that New Zealand was in breach of the Geneva Convention and could face a flood of lawsuits from veterans and Vietnamese. It is unlikely that the U.S. will admit liability for the horrors Agent Orange unleashed in Vietnam. The class action case was dismissed in 2005 by a district court in Brooklyn, New York. Agent Orange was a powerful herbicide used by U.S. military forces during the Vietnam War to eliminate forest cover and crops for North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops. -About 80 million litres of toxic chemicals were sprayed over the south of Vietnam. A view of Camp . Chapter 2 describes the state of nature before the age of pesticides, and how the governments of both the U.S. and the Vietnam Republic misrepresented the effects of defoliation efforts in Vietnam.
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